Initially, drivers would drive 90m underwater, progressing to 150m as their skills improved. A five-meter deep lake would be used to practice driving underwater. In the second phase of training, the crew got the chance to put their skills to the test. Crews were not allowed to move onto the second phase until they had passed the first phase. Rescue operations were practised on simulators. There was a good deal of safety training, which helped with crew confidence and morale. Training covered swimming, diving, carrying out procedures underwater whilst wearing escape masks. The first phase, lasting up to two months, concentrated on preparing the crews to operate tanks under water. Emphasis was placed on giving the crew confidence in their ability to snorkel well and safely. Training took place on purpose-built sites, with good facilities. Every tank crew was fully trained in snorkelling. None the less, a 1971 British Army intelligence report stated that the Soviet army considered it “a practical operation of war” (Army Technical Intelligence Review, April 1971). It seems likely that the armies of the Warsaw Pact preferred not to snorkel main battle tanks, and that ferries or pontoon bridges were preferred. A snorkelling T-72 coming out of the water Snorkelling Main battle tanks carried snorkels that allowed them to wade through water up to 5m deep. Echographs were developed, that could quickly measure water depth and river width. A range of equipment was created to bridge gaps or ferry vehicles over rivers. Since there was no guarantee of securing bridges intact, the Warsaw Pact put a great deal of emphasis on their ability to cross water obstacles. In a war in western Europe, the Warsaw Pact armies expected to advance an average of 100km per day, leading to a significant number of river crossings. Every 250-300km they would encounter one that was wider still. Every 100-150km, they would encounter a water obstacle between 100m and 300m wide. It concluded that they would have to cross water obstacles up to 100m wide every 35 to 60km. During the Cold War, the Warsaw Pact armies studied the disposition of rivers in western Europe.
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